An excerpt from: Grace and Judaism: Christians are the true Chasidim. Section: The House of Hillel and Chesed

Yose ben Yozer, and his vice President (In Hebrew: “Av Beit Din”) would set the precedent for a time known as “Zuggot” or “pairs.” Each pair would lead an assembly of Elders, to settle religious disputes and establish Halachah. The fifth pair, consisting of Hillel as president, and Shammai as vice-president would constitute the end of the era of “Zuggot.” After Hillel, the presidency was passed down to his descendants. 

The disputes between Hillel and Shammai are legendary. Tradition has an account of over 350 disagreements.

The vast majority of Hillel’s rulings were lenient compared to Shammai, who consistently advocated for the strictest interpretation of the law. 

Shammai was known for his religious zeal. However, his zeal led to theological inflexibility. In addition, he was notorious for his bad temperament. This is best communicated in a tradition that compares and contrasts Hillel’s reaction to a gentile, relative to Shammai’s outburst with a builders cubit:

There was another incident involving one gentile who came before Shammai and said to Shammai: Convert me on condition that you teach me the entire Torah while I am standing on one foot. Shammai pushed him away with the builder’s cubit in his hand. – Talmud Shabbat 31a

Hillel however, responds kindly:

That which is hateful to you do not do to another. That is the entire Torah, and the rest is interpretation. Go study! – Talmud Shabbat 31a

Hillel promoted a loving disposition to people, even to the gentile. This was for the purpose of “drawing them near to the Torah”:

Be disciples of Aaron,loving peace and pursuing peace, loving people and drawing them near to the Torah. – Mishnah Avot 1:12

Regarding this “pair” traditions states:

Shammai’s impatience sought to drive us from the world; Hillel’s patience brought us beneath the wings of the Shechinah (the Divine Presence). – Talmud, Shabbat 31a

When Rabbi’s retrospectively analyse the dynamic of Hillel vs. Shammai, they conclude that the divine trait that best represents what Hillel stood for, was/is “Chesed” (Grace), whereas the trait that best summarises Shammai was/is “Gevurah” (Severity, or Judgement):

“Later came Hillel and Shammai…However, Hillel was from the side of chesed… and Shammai was from the side of gevura…” – Gate of Reincarnations Chapter 34, Section 2.

An excerpt from: Hashkafah. section: Jesus, the Sabbath, and the Hashkafah of Hillel

As president of the Sanhedrin, Hillel was superior in rank over Shammai who presided as second in command. Shammai often advocated for the harshest application of the law. His zeal would have undermined Hillel’s lenient approach if it were not for the fact that Hillel was president. As Hillel and Shammai gathered disciples, their disciples would in time, take on the nature of their founders. The disciples of Hillel were humble and open-minded, and the disciples of Shammai were aggressive and refused compromise.

Hillel and his interpretations would set the precedent for the lightest, most lenient approach to the Torah and its various obligations. However, during the time of Jesus, Shammai and his disciples took on the majority. They were the politically dominant party and leveraged their power aggressively.

The many times that Jesus was confronted by the Pharisees over the Sabbath, it’s clear that they were disciples of Shammai.

Had Jesus truly broken the Sabbath in a defiant manner, the disciples of Shammai would have most definitely seized Jesus for trial by the Sanhedrin. But Jesus did not unlawfully break the Sabbath.

What he did, was in accord with the Halakah of Hillel. Hillel permitted the Sabbath to be broken for the sake of life, and for the sake of Mercy. Hillel permitted the Sabbath to be broken for circumcision. It was recognized that the priests would break the Sabbath for the sake of service in the Temple and they did so “blamelessly.” In the same way, service to God could be performed in other ways without blame. Jesus was taking the lenient approach to the Sabbath, as set by Hillel.

The Shammaites were powerless to stop Jesus from doing so. They couldn’t because, in the end, Hillel outranked Shammai. This meant that Hillel’s Hashkafah/Halachah would forever remain viable and superior to Shammai’s rulings.

Jesus leveraged legal precedent to demonstrate the true intent behind the Sabbath. Since he did so according to the Hashkafah of Hillel, he was able to make his point with impunity.

Hidden in every argument regarding the Sabbath, is an implicit appeal to lenient Hashkafah originating with Hillel…

An Excerpt from: The “New Law” of the Messiah. Section: Through the Messiah we are able to obey the Torah

The Shamaaite Pharisee’s fought for the highest regulation and control of every matter. And when they failed to cultivate control, they resorted to violence:

“On one tragic day, disciples of the School of Shammai attacked, and might even have killed, members of the School of Hillel (Jerusalem Talmud, Shabbat 1:4). Enough Hillelites were prevented from the home of Chanaiah ben Chizikyah ben Garon, where the sage were meeting that day, that the School of Shammai was able to achieve what it longed craved, a majority (Mishnah Shabbat 1:4). They took advantage of the situation to push through eighteen regulations, several of which were intended to strengthen the separation between Jews and non-Jews. The Hillelites saw the day on which these decrees passed as ‘a day as grievous for Israel as the day on which the Golden Calf was made. (Jerusalem Talmud, Shabbat 1:4)”- page 118, Hillel: if not now, when?, Rabbi Joseph Tellushkin

Tensions were so high, that the seven woes of Jesus to the Pharisees (Matthew 23:13-37) were less controversial than we assume. It’s even likely that some of the Pharisees themselves (The students of Hillel) would have welcomed the rebuke.

The Talmud preserves a list of 7 kinds of Pharisees, allegedly observed by the genuine Pharisees among them. 2 were good, the remaining 5 kinds were regarded as possessing less than pure intentions – the language used in the text implies a “pseudo righteousness.” The matter is closed with the general warning against the hypocritical among the Pharisees:

‘Fear not the Pharisees and the non-Pharisees but the hypocrites (הצבועין) who are the Pharisees; because their deeds are the deeds of Zimri (Num. 25:11ff) but they expect a reward like Phineas’” – (Babylonian Talmud, Sota 22b)

• The Apostle Peter and “Arete”
• Greek Philosophy
• Hellenist Jews
• The four virtues and Jewish tradition
• Mussar

The Apostle Peter and “Arete”

In the epistle of 2 Peter, Peter writes out of concern for the new members of the faith; encouraging them to remain steadfast in the teachings that were granted to them, and to continue living godly lives. Peter elucidates on a 7-step process leading to the ultimate goal of achieving the ability to express and live out Godly love:

“…make every effort to add to your faith goodness; and to goodness, knowledge; 6 and to knowledge, self-control; and to self-control, perseverance; and to perseverance, godliness; 7 and to godliness, mutual affection; and to mutual affection, love.” – 2 Peter 1:5-7

Peter assures that by adhering to the pattern provided, they would avoid falling into complacency and maintain a productive Christian life. To fail to progress in this way, is likened by Peter to a type of blindness – resulting from a forgetfulness of what Christ has done for us. As Peter expounds, we have been granted knowledge and all spiritual ability to achieve what is expected of us:

“His divine power has given us everything we need for a godly life through our knowledge of him who called us by his own glory and goodness. 4 Through these he has given us his very great and precious promises, so that through them you may participate in the divine nature, having escaped the corruption in the world caused by evil desires.” – 2 Peter 1:3-4

We must fight the temptation to lose our resolve due to distraction, and the concerns of life. For this reason, Peter writes to “remind” his readers, and to ensure that they will remember when he is gone:

“So I will always remind you of these things, even though you know them and are firmly established in the truth you now have. 13 I think it is right to refresh your memory as long as I live in the tent of this body, 14 because I know that I will soon put it aside, as our Lord Jesus Christ has made clear to me. 15 And I will make every effort to see that after my departure you will always be able to remember these things.” – 2 Peter 1:12-15

The Greek word translated as “goodness” by the NIV in 2 Peter 1:5 , often “virtue” in other translations is “Arete”:

“…make every effort to add to your faith goodness [Arete]; and to goodness [Arete], knowledge;” 

 At the time of Peter’s Epistle, “Arete” was a topic of great discussion and inquiry among the Greeks. In the poems of Homer, it conveyed in one word the many traits possessed by the most elite and respected warriors. In addition, it was also used to connote the qualities that any individual employed in order to perform with great skill the duties that their station in life required. Arete came to represent the highest potential that can be attributed to any person, profession, animal or object:

“The arete of a horse consists in its swiftness of foot, the arete of soil in its fertility, the arete of a woman in her being a good housewife, the arete of a slave in his or her loyalty to a master…” – Maraglit Finkelberg (ed.), The Homer Encyclopedia (Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell,2011), s.v. “arete.”

To put it simply:

“Virtue (Arete) is the disposition of a thing which makes it good and its own act (it’s unique job) good.” – Duane Berquist, “Note on end or purpose of man,” p.3.

The Greeks inquired; can mankind discern the “act” that defines when a man is achieving Arete – his highest potential? Aristotle concluded: the one unique trait exhibited by man is reason. Therefore, the Arete of man is to align his actions in accordance with reason to the highest extent possible:

“To live seems to be common even to the plants, but what is man’s own is sought. The nourishing and growing life therefore should be set aside. Following this, there would be something sensing. But this also seems to be common to the horse and the ox and every animal. There remains the doing of what has reason. But of this, the one as obeying or persuaded by reason and the other as having reason and thinking.” – Ethics I, 7 1097b-1098a; trans. Duane Bergquist.

Greek philosophy promoted four virtues to achieving arete – the highest potential of man. The Roman philosopher Cicero writes:

“Virtue may be defined as a habit of mind in harmony with reason and the order of nature. It has four parts: wisdom, justice, courage, temperance.” – Ciscero: De Inventione, II, LIII. The latinlibrary.com.

• Wisdom (also known as prudence): using reason to determine the most appropriate action for any situation encountered
• Temperance: using self-control to restrain one’s impulses and submit it to reason
• Justice: using reason to determine the most appropriate way to interact with others in order to preserve harmony and order
• Courage: possessing the strength required to endure the hardships of consistently living according to reason

Greek Philosophy

Western Philosophy sought to contend against unchallenged accepted truths in order to arrive at what really is; the ontological.  Philosophers like Xenophanes of Colophon dared to question the epic tales embraced by Greek culture and the celestial activity of many gods suggested by Homer and Hesiod at the time. In the year 399 BC, Socrates was sentenced to death for publicly denouncing the “gods of the state.” This made the proponents of Greek Philosophy unexpected allies with the Jewish people in the fight against idolatry. While Eastern Philosophy is heavily entangled with idolatrous practices – having been subject to the ebb and flow of various forms of idolatry over time, Greek Philosophy fought to remain clean of association. 

Although Socrates did not commit anything to writing, his student Plato would eventually document his teachings. Together, along with Plato’s student Aristotle, their efforts would lay the foundation for Western Philosophy and science. Soon various Philosophical disciplines would emerge, such as Stoicism.

Stoicism was founded by Zeno of Citium (3rd Century BC) in the city of Athens. The four virtues (Wisdom, Temperance, Justice, Courage) were integrated into Stoicism, as a result of its inclusion in Plato’s work “The Republic”, regarding the “perfect state”: “it will obviously have the qualities of wisdom, courage, self-discipline, and justice.” – Republic, 5/1/428

Hellenist Jews

When Israel fell to the Empire of Babylon, scripture documents a great number of Israelites fleeing to Egypt for asylum (2 Kings 25; Jeremiah 41). 

According to the historian Josephus, when Alexander the Great died, one of his generals (Ptolemy) seized Jerusalem and took many Jewish captives to Egypt (Josephus, Ant. 12:1:1). Josephus writes that Ptolemy’s successor: Ptolemy Philadelphus, negotiated with the High Priest of Jerusalem to obtain a Greek translation of the Torah for the Library of Alexandria. In exchange, he agreed to liberate many Jewish slaves and prisoners. Seventy-two Jewish translators were chosen for the endeavor, leading to the translation of the “Septuagint” – Latin for “70” (referring to the 72 translators). Alexandria became a center of one of the largest Jewish communities outside of Israel during the Second Temple period. The community in Egypt became so large, the book of 2 Maccabees is specifically addressed to them:

“The brethren, the Jews that be at Jerusalem and in the land of Judea, wish unto the brethren, the Jews that are throughout Egypt, health and peace…” – 2 Maccabbees 1:1

The community had a lavish synagogue, described in the Talmud as one of the great glories of the Jewish people:

“it is taught in a baraita that Rabbi Yehuda says: One who did not see the great synagogue of Alexandria of Egypt never saw the glory of Israel. They said that its structure was like a large basilica, with a colonnade within a colonnade. At times there were six hundred thousand men and another six hundred thousand men in it, twice the number of those who left Egypt. In it there were seventy-one golden chairs, corresponding to the seventy-one members of the Great Sanhedrin, each of which consisted of no less than twenty-one thousand talents of gold. And there was a wooden platform at the center. The sexton of the synagogue would stand on it, with the scarves in his hand. And because the synagogue was so large and the people could not hear the communal prayer, when the prayer leader reached the conclusion of a blessing requiring the people to answer amen, the sexton waved the scarf and all the people would answer amen.” – Talmud, Sukkot 51b.

The Alexandrian Jewish Community were culturally Greek, accepted Greek Philosophy, spoke Greek and used the Septuagint. They were Torah observant, while at the same time accepting of Greek culture. One mention is made of “Hellenistic Jews” in the New Testament, and is found in Acts 6. Stephen, the first Christian martyr, was also a Hellenistic Jew.

Hellenistic Jews did not merely embrace Greek Philosophy. They held the conviction that major tenets were derived from the Torah itself. They believed that either the Greek philosophers appropriated principles first found in the Torah, or they genuinely arrived at their conclusions by way of logic and observation. If so, Greek Philosophy represented the “long way” – the account of wisdom derived through observation and logic, when such insights were made available and explicit to the Jewish people through the Torah and the Prophets.

The Alexandrian Jewish writer Aristoblus writes:

“It is evident that Plato imitated our Torah and that he had investigated thoroughly each of the elements in it. For it had been translated by others before before Demetrius Phalereus, before the conquests of Alexander and the Persians.” – Aristoblus; Fragment 3; quoted in Eusebius 12:12:1f

“And it seems to me that Pythagoras, Socrates, and Plato with great care follow him [Moses] in all respects.  They copy him when they say they hear the voice of God, and they contemplate the arrangement of the universe, so carefully made and so unceasingly held together by God.  – Aristoblus; Fragment 4; quoted in Eusebius 13:13:4

The four virtues and Jewish tradition

The author of the 4th Book of Maccabees exhorts his audience to engage in Philosophy to best remain informed of a subject that is “most philosophical.” The author calls it “Devout Reason”:

“The subject that I am about to discuss is most philosophical, that is, whether devout reason is sovereign over the emotions. So it is right for me to advise you to pay earnest attention to philosophy.” – 4 Maccabees 1:1

The term, coined by the author, combines the Greek study and application of reason, with the Jewish pursuit of a life lived in submission to God. Devout Reason is therefore the practice of leveraging logic/reason to mitigate human error and subdue emotions in a maximal effort to serve God. 

The author defines reason as: “the mind that with sound logic prefers the life of wisdom.” Wisdom, in turn is: “…the knowledge of divine and human matters and the causes of these.” The author points to the Torah as their primary source for wisdom, divine matters, and human affairs. The four virtues of Plato are then listed, as four kinds of wisdom: “Now the kinds of wisdom are rational judgment, justice, courage, and self-control.” (4 Maccabees 1:18). Rational judgment is the chief expression, as all forms of wisdom are believed to flow from reason/logic. In turn, our judgments are used to inform our behavior and guide our emotions; i.e. we determine which emotions to suppress, and which to allow:

“Rational judgment is supreme over all of these, since by means of it reason rules over the emotions.” – 4 Maccabees 1:19

The author goes on to elaborate that this ability to elevate rational thought by overriding emotion, is deliberate and according to God’s design:

“Now when Elohim fashioned man, he planted in him emotions and inclinations, but at the same time he enthroned the mind among the senses as a sacred governor over them all. To the mind he gave the Torah; and one who lives subject to this will rule a kingdom that is temperate, just, good, and courageous.” – 4Macc. 2:21-23

While the first three Books provide a historical account of the trials of the time period, the fourth Book of Maccabees is an introspective look into the courageous actions of all the martyr’s involved. According to the author, the Martyr’s were able to remain faithful to their convictions under threat of torture and death through the faculty of reason. Using their minds, they subdued their fears and bravely met their end: 

I could prove to you from many and various examples that reason is dominant over emotions, but I can demonstrate it best from the noble bravery of those who died for the sake of virtue, Eleazar and the seven brothers and their mother. All of these, by despising sufferings that bring death, demonstrated that reason controls the emotions. On this anniversary it is fitting for me to praise for their virtues those who, with their mother, died for the sake of nobility and goodness, but I would also call them blessed for the honor in which they are held. For all people, even their torturers, marveled at their courage and endurance, and they became the cause of the downfall of tyranny over their nation. By their endurance they conquered the tyrant, and thus their native land was purified through them. – (4Macc. 1:7-11)

“…When they saw that he was so courageous in the face of the afflictions, and that he had not been changed by their compassion, the guards brought him to the fire. There they burned him with maliciously contrived instruments, threw him down, and poured stinking liquids into his nostrils. When he was now burned to his very bones and about to expire, he lifted up his eyes to God and said,  “You know, O God, that though I might have saved myself, I am dying in burning torments for the sake of the law. Be merciful to your people, and let our punishment suffice for them. Make my blood their purification, and take my life in exchange for theirs.” And after he said this, the holy man died nobly in his tortures, and by reason he resisted even to the very tortures of death for the sake of the law. Admittedly, then, devout reason is sovereign over the emotions.”- (4Macc. 6:28-29)

The writings of Philo

The “Pre-Socratic Era” marks the advent of preliminary philosophical thought in Greece. This shift forced the intellectual elite of the period to re-evaluate their poetic and mythological traditions. A method of interpretation was adopted to reconcile philosophy with beloved tradition: Allegory. The Greek word is a combination of “Allos” meaning “other”, and “agoreuo” meaning “speech” – implying that the plain meaning of a text or a saying could refer to an “other” meaning entirely. The Allegorical method served to disarm objection to certain elements of Greek mythology, by regarding the characters and circumstances as symbols that pointed to higher truths.

Naturally, Hellenist Jews would follow suit by applying the Allegorical method to scripture. In time, it would become less of a tool specific to Hellenist Jews, as Judaism would eventually come to adopt the method under the Hebrew designation: Midrash. In Galatians 4:24, Paul uses the Allegorical method to pull a deeper insight behind the arrangement Abraham had between his wife and concubine:

“Now this may be interpreted allegorically: these women are two covenants. One is from Mount Sinai, bearing children for slavery; she is Hagar.” 

An Alexandrian Jew known as Philo lived and authored many writings around the same time the events of the New Testament were taking place. By applying the method of Allegory to scripture, Philo endeavored to prove that certain Greek concepts were not only compatible with Judaism but fundamental to the faith. Genesis chapter 2 verses 8-14 detail the conditions of Eden. Included in this description, is mention of a river flowing through Eden and eventually parting into four heads:

“A river watering the garden flowed from Eden; from there it was separated into four headwaters. The name of the first is the Pishon; it winds through the entire land of Havilah, where there is gold. (The gold of that land is good; aromatic resin and onyx are also there.) The name of the second river is the Gihon; it winds through the entire land of Cush. The name of the third river is the Tigris; it runs along the east side of Ashur. And the fourth river is the Euphrates.”

Philo saw in this river, an allegorical depiction of wisdom flowing from the logos to irrigate souls of men:

“(125) As, therefore, the seeds and plants which are put into the ground grow and blossom through being irrigated, and are thus made fertile for the production of fruits, but if they are deprived of moisture they wither away, so likewise the soul, as it appears when it is watered with the wholesome stream of wisdom, shoots forth, and brings fruit to perfection…(127) On which account it is said in Genesis, “And a fountain went up from the earth, and watered all the face of the Earth.” (Gen 2:6)…In this way in truth, it is the word (Logos) of God that irrigates the virtues; for that is the beginning and the fountain of all good actions.”

Philo believed the four heads represented the four virtues:

“(128) And the lawgiver shows this, when he says, “And a river went out of Eden to water the Paradise; and from thence it is divided into four Heads.” (Gen 2:10) For there are four generic virtues: prudence, courage, self-control, and justice. And of these, every single one is a princess and a ruler; and he who has acquired them is, from the moment of the acquisition, a ruler and a king, even if he has no abundance of any kind of treasure;…(129) and these spring from the word (Logos) of God as from one root, which he compares a river, on account of the unceasing and everlasting flow of salutary words and doctrines, by which it increases and nourishes the souls that love God. – Philo; On the Posterity of Cain and His Exile;125, 127 – 129.

The “Wisdom of Solomon”

According to Church Father Melito (2nd Century) the Wisdom of Solomon was considered canon by the Jews and Christians of the time. 

The Rambam (Rabbi Moshe ben Nachman, 1194 – 1270) authored one of the most respected commentaries on the Torah. In the introduction to his commentary, he quotes from an Aramaic version of the Wisdom of Solomon. He writes with conviction that the words quoted authentically came from Solomon himself:

“King Solomon, peace be upon him, whom G-d had given wisdom and knowledge, derived it all from the Torah, and from it he studied until he knew the secret of all things created, even of the forces and characteristics of plants, so that he wrote about them even a Book of Medicine, as it is written, And he spoke of trees, from the cedar that is in Lebanon even unto the hyssop that springeth out of the wall (1Kings 5:13). Now I have seen the Aramaic translation of the book called The Great Wisdom of Solomon, and in it is written: “There is nothing new in the birth of a king or ruler; there is one entrance for all people into the world, and one exit alike. Therefore I have prayed, and the spirit of wisdom was given to me, and I have called out and the spirit of knowledge came to me; I chose it above scepter and throne.” (Wisdom 7:3-8) And it is further said there: “It is G-d alone Who gives knowledge that contains no falsehood, [enabling one] to know how the world arose, the composition of the constellations, the beginning, the end and middle of the times, the angles of the ends of the constellations, and how the seasons are produced by the movement of heavens and the fixed positions of the stars, the benign nature of cattle and the fierceness of beasts, the power of the wind and the thoughts of man, the relationship of trees and the forces of roots; everything hidden and everything revealed I know.” (Wisdom 7:17-21)  All this Solomon knew from the Torah, and he found everything in it – in its simple meanings, in the subtleties of its expressions and its letters and its strokes, as I have mentioned. – Ramban; The Introduction to the Commentary on the Torah

In chapter 8 of the Wisdom of Solomon, the four virtues are mentioned: 

“She (Wisdom) teaches temperance, and prudence, and justice, and fortitude, which are such things as men have nothing more profitable in life.” – Wisdom of Solomon 8:7

The Mishnah

The Mishnah preserves an account of Sage Ben Zoma attempting to validate the notion that all four virtues can be derived from scripture:

Ben Zoma would say: Who is wise (Prudence)? He who learns from everyone. As is stated (Psalms 119:99): “From all my teachers I have grown wise”; Who is strong (Courage)? He who controls his impulses. As is stated (Proverbs 16:32), “Better one who is slow to anger than one with might, one who rules his spirit than the captor of a city.”; Who is rich (Temperance)? He who is happy with what he has. As is stated (Psalms 128:2): “If you eat of toil of your hands, fortunate are you, and good is to you”; “fortunate are you” in this world, “and good is to you” in the World to Come; Who is honored (Justice)? He who honors everyone! As is stated (1 Samuel 2:30): “For to those who honor me, I accord honor; those who scorn me shall be demeaned;”. – Pirkei Avot 4:1

Mussar

“Mussar ” is Hebrew for instruction, or discipline. The word suggests an emphasis on ethical teaching and the practical application of Torah Wisdom. It appears most frequently in the Book of Proverbs:

 “Listen, my son, to your father’s instruction [Mussar] and do not forsake your mother’s teaching.” – Proverbs 1:8

Judaism would preserve the personal insights and ethical teachings of the Sages as oral tradition, until the circumstances of exile forced Jewish leadership to commit tradition into writing. A section in the Mishnah is devoted to subject, titled: “Pirke Avot” (The ‘chapters’ or ‘sayings’ of the Fathers). It contains brief wisdom statements and reflections, made by respected Sages since time immemorial. Upon analysis, the most unexpected feature of “Pirke Avot” is the mundane nature of the great majority of its sayings. This is characteristic of Mussar. The book of Proverbs presents the bestowal of Mussar within the framework of a Father instructing his Son. This is very fitting, as fatherly wisdom is often duty oriented, mundane and to the point: “Be a good man”, “Be a hard worker”, “A man provides for his family”, etc. 

Our tendency is to undervalue the simple. Instead, we prefer the grandiose, and the philosophically pretentious. The irony is that the simple directive is often the hardest. For example: it’s much easier to conjure feelings of love for humanity through meditative pursuit, than it is to love one person we dislike. Before we can scale our love upwards – we must master the art of loving one difficult person. Big changes start with small steps. Perhaps this is why God commanded: “You shall love your neighbor…”, instead of: “You shall love humanity” in general: 

“The wording of the Torah’s commandment – with its emphasis on neighbor, implying a person whom we see often – suggests that this mitzvah relates to tangible behavior and not simply to abstract love…” – A code of Jewish Ethics, page 11.

The Mussar of the “Avot” (Fathers/Sages):

• “love work, hate acting the superior…”
• “make your [study of the] Torah a fixed practice; speak little, but do much; and receive all men with a pleasant countenance.”
• “…Study is not the most important thing, but actions…”

The Mussar Movement

Modern Mussar can be traced to the 10th Century work of ‘Sadia Gaon’, author of the book “The Book of Beliefs and Opinions.” Included in the book was a chapter devoted to Mussar titled: “How a person ought to behave in the world.” 

The practice of Mussar remained a private pursuit until the 16th Century, when Rabbi Israel Salanter promoted communal study of Mussar as a buffer against the emerging secular Jewish movements that many feared were at risk of tearing Jewish communities apart. Israel Salanter believed that wide scale study of ethical behavior and character development would remedy division. Three of Salanters most devoted students would found schools of their own:

• Rabbi Simcha Zissel Ziv of Kelm: focused on “the powers of the mind.” He would teach: “take time, be exact, and unclutter the mind.”
• Rabbi Noson Tzvi Finkel of Slabodka: placed emphasis on the behavior. Students were encouraged to contemplate actions commensurate with man’s place as a created being, made in God’s image.
• Rabbi Yosef Yozel Hurwitz of Novaradok: developed a practice of “storming the soul.” He insisted that inner change can only come through force.

The “Account of the Soul”

Rabbi Menachem Mendel Levin (1749–1826) was the first to propose the daily practice of reflection and journaling as a Mussar method for personal growth. However, the idea is far older. 

Marcus Aurelius Antonius served as Roman Emperor from 161 – 180 BC. Marcus is heralded as one of history’s most notable Stoics. In an effort to secure his character development, he committed himself to journaling. Each entry would address anticipated challenges, musings, and insights in preparation for the coming day, or upon the day’s conclusion. The entries were eventually collected and published as a seminal work on Stoic Philosophy, known as “Meditations.”

Similarly, Rabbi Menachem recommended two periods of reflection: one in the morning, and a second upon the day’s conclusion to evaluate or to “bring an accounting” of one’s “Nefesh” (Soul). 

During the first period of reflection, the goal is to define the disposition/behavior that one wishes to exemplify throughout the day. 

The Greek Stoics would consider every attribute, and every action that would facilitate Arete/excellence: 

• Arete for the day (how to ensure productivity, minimize wasted time, and achieve set goals)
• Arete for one’s various stations/roles in society (for example, if a person is a Leader, they would aspire for behavior that would constitute an excellent Leader) 
• Arete for a human in general.

By doing so, they would exercise all four virtues:

• Prudence: By determining the behavior necessary to achieve Arete after careful thought and consideration.
• Temperance: They would commit to restraining their impulses, should their desires possibly lead them away from Arete.
• Justice: They would apply this discipline to achieve Arete in their relationships, and in their interactions with others.
• Courage: They would commit to this practice with unwavering resolve. 

The Arete of a Jew

To the religious Jew, the utmost concern is Arete for the Jew. What constitutes an excellent Jew? Mussar defines two main priorities:

• An excellent Jew obeys the Torah, in accordance with proper Halakah and Hashkafah
• An excellent Jew exhibits Godly Middos (Godly attributes/traits)

In Rabbi Menachem’s book “The account of the soul” 13 primary Middos are identified, listed, and expounded with great detail. The intention is to fully inform the reader in preparation for the journaling process: 

Step 1:

“The first step is to collate – either by oneself or from books – thirteen chapter of Mussar literature that deal with thirteen different character traits…Next one should summarize each chapter into one short statement or verse of mussar and each one of these short statements should be condensed into a codeword.” – Account of the soul, Rabbi Menachem.

•  the end result would be the collection of thirteen codewords. 

“Each codeword is used for an entire week, so that through the fifty-two weeks of the year, one will have used each of the thirteen codewards four times, once in each season.”

Step 2: The Morning

“Throughout the week, one should hope that he will be presented with the opportunity to deal with the specific character trait associated with that week’s codeword…Every morning, repeat aloud the codeword that pertains to that week, and pause to consider how it can be implemented that day. Then, carefully consider what you have to do that day – both as regards your obligations to God and your obligations to your fellow man – and plan your day so that you can fulfill your obligations in their proper order and at the time appropriate for each one.”

Step 3: At Night

“Before retiring at night, review the day’s activities and consider what you did that day. Review each and every activity in all of their details and in the order of their occurrence. If your original intent was not fulfilled, even partially, consider why this happened. If it was because of a mistake, then try to understand why you made the mistake, using your analysis as a means of learning a lesson for the future…See whether you have violated…the [trait that corresponds to that day]. If you have, take a pencil and mark in your notebook…that corresponds to that day and that character trait.”

• Over time, progress should be evident:

“With God’s help, what you see will make you happy, for you will find that the violations have diminished year by year, season by season and week by week.”

Mussar and the Apostle Peter

The “Path of the Just” written by Rabbi Moshe Chaim Luzatto (1707-1746) is considered one of the most influential works of Mussar literature. In the author’s introduction, Rabbi Moshe articulates his primary aim for the book:

“I have written this work not to teach people what they do not know, but rather to remind them of what they already know and clearly understand…However, to the degree that these rules are well-known ad and their truth self-evident, they are routinely overlooked, or people forget about them altogether…Therefore, the benefit to be obtained from this work cannot be derived from a single reading…Rather, it’s benefit is a function of continuous review. In this manner, one is reminded of those things which, by nature, people are prone to forget, and he will take to heart the duty that he tends to overlook.”

This is incredibly similar to the sentiment the Apostle Peter makes in his second Epistle:

“So I will always remind you of these things, even though you know them and are firmly established in the truth you now have. 13 I think it is right to refresh your memory as long as I live in the tent of this body, 14 because I know that I will soon put it aside, as our Lord Jesus Christ has made clear to me. 15 And I will make every effort to see that after my departure you will always be able to remember these things.” – 2 Peter 1:12-15

Peter’s concern is that his readers remain vigilant in their faith, so that they continue to press forward. To ensure that momentum is not lost, Peter proposes a 7 step process that will secure success:

“…make every effort to add to your faith goodness [Arete]; and to goodness, knowledge; 6 and to knowledge, self-control; and to self-control, perseverance; and to perseverance, godliness; 7 and to godliness, mutual affection; and to mutual affection, love.” – 2 Peter 1:5-7

In a remarkably similar manner, the author also proposes a step-by-step process intended to help the reader achieve “Divine inspiration”:

“The Torah brings one to vigilance, vigilance brings one to alacrity, alacrity brings one to spiritual cleanliness, cleanliness brings one to abstinence, abstinence brings one to purity, purity brings one to piety, piety brings one to humility, humility brings one to fear of sin, fear of sin brings one to holiness, holiness brings one to Divine inspiration…”

In deference to ancient wisdom (the proverbs of King Solomon, and the Pirkei/”sayings” of the Sages) both men (Rabbi Moshe, and the Apostle Peter) knew that the spiritual pursuit is only as effective, as one’s ability to anchor the sublime principles of religion in a practical way, and in a consistent manner. Otherwise, if the higher principles are too distant, we risk losing our connection with them. Therefore discipline and focus is key, so that one is continually on course, never wavering from the goal. This makes guidance in the form of gentle reminders, absolutely paramount. In addition, we should embrace every occasion to add structure to our faith, so that we are led to overcome weakness and our inclination to become distracted.

The Arete of the Christian

What constitutes excellence for the Christian? I’m inclined to start with the two greatest commandments:

“One of them, an expert in the law, tested him with this question: ‘Teacher, which is the greatest commandment in the Law?’ Jesus replied: ‘Love the Lord your God with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your mind. This is the first and greatest commandment. And the second is like it: Love your neighbor as yourself.’ All the Law and the Prophets hang on these two commandments.’” – Matthew 22:35-40

• Love God
• Love neighbor

Break down each point with as much specificity as you can:

• Love God
  • Define the many ways a Christian can express love to God.
  • Do you feel you adequately engage in these activities daily? 
  • In what ways can you improve, for the sake of loving God to the best of your ability?
• Love neighbor
  • Define the many ways a Christian can express love to others.
  • Do you feel you adequately express love to family members, friends, co-workers, etc.?
  • In what ways can you improve?
    • Note that love can mean different things depending on the person. 
      • Spouse
      • Child
      • Friend
      • Co-worker
    • In what ways can you improve for your spouse? What will it take to become an excellent husband/wife?
    • In what ways can you improve for your child? What will it take to become an excellent parent?
    • In what ways can you improve for your friends? What will it take to become an excellent friend?
    • In what ways can you improve for your co-workers/acquaintances? What will it take to become a person people will admire, look up to?

Once you have defined your standard for Christian Arete/excellence, frequently study and reference each point when you have time available. Review it upon waking, and compare your actions against it when you retire for the day. Rate your degree of conformity to this standard, document mistakes made, and possible solutions.

Make journal entries to document your insights so that one day you may compile your own collection of Mussar wisdom.

Mussar sources:

• The Mussar of King Solomon
• The Mussar of the Sages (Pirkei Avot/”Sayings of the Fathers”)
• The Account of the Soul
• The Path of the Just
• Marcus Aurelius

An excerpt from: Faith and the “Works of the law”

Paul’s contention was not with the law itself, but with the incorrect handling of the law:

“We know that the law is good if one uses it properly.” – 1 Timothy 1:8

This was addressed to Paul’s disciple and traveling companion who underwent the procedure of circumcision performed at the behest of Paul himself. How can we reconcile this, when Paul wrote to the Galatians that circumcision would jeopardize their salvation? In Timothy’s case, the Torah was handled correctly. Timothy was circumcised for the purpose of removing possible contentions that the Jews in the area would have had if Timothy wished to preach to them. The motive was therefore pure, and done to advance the gospel. This is in stark contrast to Galatians, who were receiving circumcision out of the worst motive possible: to earn their salvation.

During the 1^st Century, the issue of motive regarding Torah observance became such a heated topic that the term “Lishmah” was developed, translated as: “for its purpose” – asserting that one should not complicate the matter through assigning impure motives. Rather, they believed, the Torah should only be pursued out of a sense of duty with “no thought of a wage”:

“Antigones of Soko received the Torah from Simeon the Righteous. He used to say, ‘Be not like servants who serve their master for the sake of wages, but be like servants who serve their master with no thought of a wage – and let the fear of heaven be upon you.” – Mishnah, Avot 1:3

A cautionary tale was developed as a warning to those who would dare take on the Yoke of Torah with impure Lishmah. A sage known as Doeg haEdomi fell into apostasy:

“He was the head of the Sanhedrin in the generation of Shaul and Smuel, yet he is counted among those who have no share in the world to come. Why did the Torah that he studied not protect him? Because he studied “Sheloh lishmah” – with improper motivation!” – Chesbon HaNefesh, page 13, Forward.

Compare that with Paul’s rebuke of the Galatians:

“Mark my words! I, Paul, tell you that if you let yourselves be circumcised, Christ will be of no value to you at all…You who are trying to be justified by the law have been severed from Christ; you have fallen away from grace.” – Galatians 5:2,4

The Galatians were falling for the same error as the great Doeg, and in grave danger of suffering the same fate if they continued. Paul writes: “Christ will be of no value to you at all” – meaning they would lose their salvation. To put it in Jewish terms, they were going to “lose their share in the world to come.”

In Romans 3, Paul offers the following inquiry: if we are not saved through the works of the law, do we abandon the practice, consider it abrogated, made obsolete by faith? The answer is surprising. Paul responds: “Not at all! Rather we uphold the law” (Romans 3:31). The observance of the Torah itself was not the damnable practice that Paul was condemning. Instead, Paul was opposing pursuing Torah with improper Lishmah! This was the error behind the “Works of the Law” that Paul was desperately trying to communicate.

Paul writes that Israel failed to achieve the righteousness they were seeking because they misunderstood the purpose of the law. They pursued it as if it were a platform for accruing works when they could have pursued it “by faith”:

“…but the people of Israel, who pursued the law as the way of righteousness, have not attained their goal [of righteousness]. Why not? Because they pursued it not by faith but as if it were by works.” – Romans 9:20-32

Here we arrive at the real point of contention with the “works of the Law.” The “works of the Torah” ultimately represent works done with improper Lishmah, that is, works done for the “sake of wages” and with motive to earn. Anything done by faith, in contrast, is performed with no thought of a wage – we do them because we wish to be faithful to God, and what he requires.

This means that the “works of the Law” are not limited to the Ceremonial laws. Paul appropriated the term because it represented an Essene doctrine of works-based righteousness. The danger is therefore in accidentally turning anything, even charity, into the “works of the Law.” As Paul makes clear in the passages quoted, there is nothing wrong with the Ceremonial works of the Torah, if done “by faith.” Therefore the term, as applied by Paul should be understood in this way:

• “Works of the Torah” = Ceremonial law, or any other religious ‘work’ done with the improper motive to earn
•  “By Faith” = Ceremonial law, or any other religious ‘work’ done with proper motive

Saint Thomas of Aquinas identified a problem in assuming the error of the “works of the Law” was simply obedience to the Torah. He details the dilemma like this: if the consequence of the works of the law is compromised salvation, it follows that the Patriarchs and all the Jews leading up to the death and resurrection of Christ who were faithful to the imperative to obey the Torah, are all consequently damned and without a place in the resurrection. This of course is nonsense. He reconciles the problem, by assigning a distinction in obeying the Torah and placing one’s “hope” in the Torah:

“But against this it can be said that the ancient fathers were of the works of the Law. Therefore, they are under a curse and, consequently damned – which is a Manichean error. Hence it is necessary to understand this correctly. And it should be noted that the Apostle does not say, “As many as observe the works of the Law are under a curse,” because this is false when applied to the time of the law. He says rather: As many are of the works of the Law, i.e, whoever trust in the works of the Law and believe that they are made just by them are under a curse. For it is one thing to be of the works of the Law and another to observe the Law. The latter consists in fulfilling the Law, so that one who fulfils it is not under a curse. But to be of the works of the Law is to trust in them and place one’s hope in them.” – Commentary on Saint Paul’s Epistle to the Galatians, St. Thomas Aquinas, F.r. Larcher, O.P.

He then mentions the conditions of the early Jewish church, that many were Torah observant, but since they did not place their “hope” in the Law, they were not condemned:

“Now in the early Church there were some just men who observed the Law without being under the Law, inasmuch as they observed the works of the Law; but they were not under the Law in the sense of putting their hope in them.”

This concept of the proper use of one’s “hope” is equivalent to the Jewish concept of “Lishmah” or “motive”:

• Improper Lishmah = obeying to earn a reward
• Placing “one’s hope” in the Torah = obeying the Torah to earn Salvation

An excerpt from: Proper motive, cleaving to God and Galatians 5:2-4

Given the severity of the wrong lishmah, much discussion has been made exploring the nature of lishmah, the rationale behind it and how to cultivate it properly.

Rabbi Chafetz Chayim writes:

“Now it is written in scripture, ‘Happy is the man who fears Hashem, who delights greatly in his commandments (psalms 112:1)…We find that the sages made a precise inference from the term ‘in his commandments’ (Talmud Bavli, Avodah Zarah 19a) explaining that it implies ‘but not for the reward for his commandments.’ Now at first sight this seems puzzling. Surely we know that the reward for keeping the commandments is to enjoy the radiance of the shechinah in Paradise.” – The Concise Book of Mitzvoth, The chafeetz Chayim, forward.

Rabbi Chafetz Chayem addresses the possible confusion that can result when inquiring as to why we should pay no regard for the reward of the commandments, especially since our reward is entrance into “paradise” meaning the Messianic age, and the ultimate joy of residing within the radiance of “Shekinah”, God’s presence. This is no doubt wonderful, and so how can we refrain from rejoicing? How can we ignore the natural inclination to obey God to receive such prospective rewards?

Rabbi Chafetz gives the following proposal:

“Well, I thought to explain that it is a known matter that wherever the Torah says “me’od” (“Very much” or “greatly”), it means to convey “without end or limit” – something that will never terminate. This is the meaning of the words, “who delights greatly in his commandments, but not in the reward for his commandments.” Although we have explained the great value of the reward for the mitzvoth, that it is on a most high and exalted level, and the immense longing of a person to attain this exquisite pleasure – nevertheless, “who delights greatly in his commandments” – here lies one’s infinite, boundless longing and yearning, after he ponders and considers the greatness of a mitzvah itself, how far-reaching its effect is. Then even its reward is to be reckoned as nought and nothing compared with the great value of doing the mitzvah itself. So there is no end or limit to a person’s longing to fulfill a mitzvah.” – The Concise Book of Mitzvoth, The chafeetz Chayim, forward.

After fully recognizing the value inherent within the commandments, all other motivations should fade away, they are “reckoned as nought and nothing” compared to the glory and privilege of the commandments themselves. However, this does not fully explain why we are to view mitzvot this way. Rabbi Chayim makes the assumption that the reader should already know. What is so great about the mitzvot; what is the value behind it all? According to scripture, the ultimate purpose behind proper lishmah is to “cleave” to God:

…you shall diligently keep all of these commandments which I command you, to do them, to love the Lord your God, to walk in all his ways, and to cleave unto him. – Deuteronomy 11:22

You shall walk after Lord your God, and fear him, and keep his commandments, and obey his voice, and you shall serve him, and cleave unto him. – Deuteronomy 13:5

“…that you may love the Lord your God, listen to his voice, and hold fast [cleave] to him.” – Deut 30:20

“But be very careful to keep the commandment and the law that Moses the servant of the Lord gave you: to love the Lord your God, to walk in obedience to him, to keep his commands, to hold fast [cleave] to him and to serve him with all your heart and with all your soul.” – Joshua 22:5

The Hebrew verb behind the English translation “cleave” or “hold fast” is pronounced “Dabaq” and is used to imply the general concept of two or more joining as one, such as: sticking, joining, cleaving, attracting, etc. The word is first used in Genesis regarding the imperative of Adam to “cleave” to Eve as his wife. The mitzvot is therefore provided as the medium, the spiritual technology through which God’s proverbial wife (Israel) is able to cleave to God, to experience joining/connecting with God in an intimate way. The abstract noun based on “Dabaq” was invented: “Devekut” referring to the experiential oneness with God resulting from the practice of obedience, intense study and focus on God.The act of cleaving results in a deep “knowing” between the two subjects. While “understanding” connotes an intellectual grasp of something, “knowledge” is quite different. Knowledge implies understanding specifically joined with experience, and it is by the deepest experience of Eve through cleaving, that Adam came to “know” his wife: “and Adam knew Eve his wife; and she conceived” (Genesis 4:1). By cleaving to God through the mitzvot/commandments, we come to know God. This is what the Apostle John was intimating with this statement in his first epistle:

“By this we can be sure that we have come to know him: if we keep his commandments.” – 1 John 2:3

God, through the prophet Jeremiah poses the following question to the king of Judah reigning at the time:

“‘Did not your father have food and drink? He did what was right and just, so all went well with him. He defended the cause of the poor and needy and so all went well. Is that not what it means to know me?’ declares the Lord.” – Jeremiah 22:15.

According to King Solomon, biblically regarded as the wisest man who ever lived, the highest purpose for man is to obey the commandments:

“Now all has been heard; here is the conclusion of the matter: Fear God and keep his commandments, for this is the duty of all mankind.” – Ecclesiastes 12:13

If the commandments were provided as a spiritual technology to precipitate “Devekut” – experiential unity with God, and if the highest goal for man is to obey the commandments, then by inference, we can understand why the sages believed that the deeper insight behind Ecclesiastes 12:13 is that the highest goal for man is devekut:

“Our sages of blessed memory have instructed us that man was created for [the sole purpose of] reveling in the eternal and delighting in the splendor of the divine presence, this being the ultimate joy and the greatest of all pleasures in existence.” – The path of the Just, Rabbi Moshe Chaim Luzzatto,  Chapter 1, page 8.

The Middah of Gratitude

Jewish Articles:

• https://reformjudaism.org/learning/sacred-texts/learn-about-middot/contentment-ones-lot-middah-samayach-bchelko
• https://www.aish.com/sp/pg/3-Gratitude.html

Youtube Videos:

• Gratitude Matters: Developing the art of Appreciation: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BWxpKILejmw

Christian Articles:

• https://bestirrednotshaken.com/new-testament/unthankful-is-ingratitude-root-of-most-sins/
• https://bestirrednotshaken.com/topic-studies/comparison-envy-the-key-to-unhappiness/